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IT HAS often been said that music is an international language. Proof of this is the folk music of the world. Enjoyment of it is not confined to the land of its origin. People can and often do enjoy hearing the music of lands other than their own. Getting acquainted with the music of other lands can be a delightful experience.

If you were to travel to every section of our earth you would find that each nation or group of people has its own characteristic songs and dances. Each one has contributed its own “accent” to the “language” of music. And this “accent” is generally so distinctive that a person can identify the land in which a certain song or dance originated, in much the same way that he can tell a foreigner’s nationality by his accent.

Most folk music was not composed by professional composers. Some of it has existed for thousands of years. In early times tunes were made up by musically inclined persons and these were handed down from generation to generation. The words of songs dealt with love, peace, war, drinking, fictional characters and amusing incidents. And people danced to the tunes, each group developing its own style.

So when people got together on social occasions in village marketplaces, in homes or around campfires, they sang and danced to music that had been handed down from their forefathers. Of course, the topography and climate of their land as well as their history, language, customs and temperament helped to mold their songs and dances. And these are the things that give each group’s folk music that peculiar “accent” that identifies it as belonging to them.

The Music of Europe

Much of the greatest music of the Western world was produced in Europe. From the seventeenth century onward a number of outstanding musical composers wrote a great quantity of music both for instruments and the voice. Their orchestral music called for many stringed instruments, as well as the wind and percussion types. Their beautiful concertos featured a solo instrument with an orchestra for accompaniment. And there were moving works that called for a large chorus of voices along with an orchestra.

Europe is known for its operas. As the play is acted out on a stage, with sets and costumes, the presentation is made more moving because the words are usually sung rather than spoken. An orchestra accompanying the singers adds dramatic effect. Operettas, like operas, have plots, but they are lighter and the music is gay.

Oratorios began in this part of the world. These compositions usually deal with Bible history. No stage props and costumes are used. Soloists sing the various parts, and a chorus and orchestra are employed. G. F. Handel wrote great Biblical oratorios dealing with Joseph and his brothers, Israel’s deliverance from Egypt, Joshua, Deborah, Jephthah, Samson, Saul, Solomon, Athaliah, Belshazzar and the fall of Babylon, Esther and the Messiah. In many of these thrilling masterpieces the divine name Jehovah appears.

At times these composers dug into the treasury of European folk music. They would either use a folk tune outright or would compose a melody having the distinctive characteristics of a nation’s folk music. At the beginning of their composition they often indicated that it was in the style of the music of a certain land.

As for the folk music of Europe, the most distinctive is that of Spain. The Moorish occupation of this land from the eighth to the fifteenth century C.E., as well as Gypsies, left their imprint on Spain’s music. Perhaps no other people have as many different kinds of dances as do the Spanish, yet that Spanish “accent” of vitality is evident in all of them. Adding to this “accent” are the instruments used by their folk musicians, namely, the guitar, the tambourine and the castanets with their clacking sound.

The Western music of Europe might be said to find a basic representative in the German. It stresses the bright-sounding major scale and is rich in harmony. Italian music is generally more melodious than is German, and is much lighter. The folk music of the French is also very melodious; however, the emphasis in their music is usually more on rhythm.

The Oriental flavor in European music is especially apparent in that of Russia. This could well be due to the Mongols who overran that country in the thirteenth century. Also, the deprivation of the people under the despotic czars no doubt helped to give Russian music its minor, sad strain. Further, the long, bleak winters there contributed to this melancholy “accent.”

Scandinavian music might be said to lie somewhere between that of the Germans and that of the Russians. Finnish music seems to have an Oriental tinge about it. However, many folk tunes of Denmark and Holland are quite similar to German folk music. Polish folk music shows both Russian and French influences.

Today it is usually the Europeans living in the country who do not merely listen but sing and dance their folk music. Those living in the cities are more inclined to go to concert halls and to listen to music on the radio.

That Latin-American “Accent”

Latin-American music is a combination of Spanish, African and, depending on the country, native Indian music. In this music the African influence is especially noticeable in the greater use of drums, the strong stress on rhythm and on variety in rhythm. Examples of these characteristics are found in such dances as the conga, the rumba, the samba and the beguine. In these dances, as well as others, the rhythm is sharply defined, being highlighted by drums and other percussive instruments. It is this quality that makes this music so catchy and moves one to want to dance to it.

Among Latin Americans there are many who like to have music all the time—and loud. So it is not unusual for them to have music on the radio all day long and frequently far into the night, with the volume turned up full blast. Cafés with jukeboxes and shops with radios add to the sound that can be heard by a good part of the neighborhood. At social affairs a band may be hired, or a phonograph turned up to full volume may provide the music. Of course, preferences vary. In some sections, people will pick up a guitar or accordion and provide their own music, singing or dancing together.

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THE origins of traditional Japanese music reach back more than a thousand years. Included are classical or refined music, chamber music, theater, folk and festival music, as well as a host of vocal forms. This treasury of music was passed on from generation to generation without the help of musical scores.

Between the third and fifth centuries C.E., Buddhist missionary priests came to Japan to spread their views. The chants and background music associated with their religion gradually merged with the Shinto traditional music, forming a basis for nearly all native Japanese music.

By the seventh century this music of Japan developed into what became known as Gagaku, the classical (literally, “elegant”) music. From Gagaku, which became the music of the imperial court, the secular use of instrumental music grew, as did theatrical music. Meanwhile, folk and festival music appeared, with its loud drumming and lively rhythm, contrasting sharply with the quiet music of Gagaku.

The Instruments

Today many instruments are employed in traditional Japanese music. The three most commonly heard are the koto, shakuhachi and shamisen.

The koto, imported from China around the ninth century, is a long wooden box-type instrument about six feet (1.8 meters) long and one foot (.3 meter) wide. With the instrument lying before him, the seated player plucks its 13 strings with a plectrum. A skillful player can produce music that pleasantly resembles that of the harp.

The Japanese bamboo flute, measuring about 21 inches (53 centimeters) in length, is called shakuhachi. This instrument has five finger holes, and a mouthpiece at the upper end. The player holds the shakuhachi vertically. By skillfully adjusting his lips to the mouthpiece at varying angles and moving his neck into different positions as he covers the holes with his fingers, the instrumentalist is able to produce three octaves of tones. The plaintive wail produced by this flute may generate feelings of vagueness and melancholy.

The shamisen has no counterpart among Western musical instruments. It came to Japan from China by way of Okinawa around the year 1560 C.E. But only the instrument is an import. The manner in which the shamisen is played, the kind of music produced with it and the construction of the instrument itself are strictly Japanese. It looks somewhat like a banjo, is made of wood covered with cat skin, and has three gut strings. The shamisen is played by striking the strings with a large plectrum.

When music is produced on the shamisen, the most important thing is not the sound of the instrument but the words for which the music provides the background. Without the words, the music has little meaning. It varies according to the meaning of the song. When words fail to express what is to be conveyed, such as the cold of falling snow or the trickling of a brook, the shamisen is used to “imitate” these things, and the story is told without words.

Appreciating the Music

What is the composite effect produced by Japanese instrumentalists? If you are listening for the first time, your reaction may be that you are hearing the same thing over and over again. It may seem that you are listening to a kind of melody, and yet there appear to be conflicting melodies. But there is something delightful about seeing the musicians perform. Their movements, posture and expressions all appear to be choreographed and in perfect harmony. Yes, in Japan, not just the music, but how it is played and how the performance looks to the observer are important.

Japanese music is very different from the music common in Western lands. This difference includes the scale, the rhythm and the sound. In Western orchestral music, sounds from the various instruments blend, producing harmony. But in Japanese music the individual instruments can be heard playing conflicting melodies. Nevertheless, together they create an aesthetic balance.

Western Influence

In the last 100 years, the Western style of music has become the norm in Japan. Under Emperor Meiji’s reform, music began to be taught in the schools, and it was the music of the West. In spite of this, there is no danger that the ancient traditional music will die out. Many Japanese people want to preserve the traditional music. Therefore, the various guilds that perpetuate this music and teach it continue to thrive.

Because music of the Western world has become so much a part of Japanese culture, one can find old Japanese songs written in Western notation and scored for the piano or guitar. Also, in the last century many new Japanese songs have been written according to the Western style. But it cannot be said that these are truly Western songs. Rather, the Japanese simply have used a medium to enrich their own musical heritage. The development is music with a distinct Japanese flavor, though scored and played in the Western style.

Read more on Novinite.com

Music for Mother and Child

Summary of a report on the effect of specially composed music on fetuses, infants, toddlers and parents

“We were just visited by a couple and their 8 months-old girl. At one point during the evening she was restless and distressed. I put on the CD “Tales of the Ocean” from the CD series “Music for Mother & Child”, and she began to listen, and calmed down with her mother. After a short time she was asleep – and my unborn child “danced” in my womb.” (Ann, mother-to-be)

Background and objective

In the summer of 1999 the two musicians and composers, Claus D Jensen and Henrik Birk Aaboe, produced the CD series Music for Mother & Child, which contains music specially composed and designed to calm fetuses, infants, toddlers and parents. In the course of the process henrik and Claus received such exciting responses from people that they decided to undertake a private study of the effect of the music on pregnant women, infants and their parents.

They wanted to study the direct effect on fetus/infant, as well as the indirect effect: whether the music could calm down the parents, and whether the tranquillity of the parents could positively affect or be imparted to the fetus/child.

In addition to studying how the music affected the participants in the study, they wanted information on how often and when the music was used and for how long at a time. The participants were given the CDs and a questionnaire in the form of a checklist with space for supplementary comments.

Study Group

44 people participated in the 12-week study. The 44 participants were divided into three groups:

1. Mothers-to-be, some of whom gave birth during the course of the study.
2. Parents with infants and toddlers from 0-3 years of age.
3. Practitioners who work with infants and/or pregnant women.

How the music originated

The idea for the CDs arose from a common desire of the musicians to compose music that could give fetuses/infants a good start in life.  For it is recognized as an extreme upheaval to leave the mother’s secure womb and suddenly face the “real” world. They wanted to compose music that could impart security and inner as well as external peace and tranquillity.

One thing that impressed the composers was that during their research they read an articleabout the widely recognized French physicist Tomatis, and learned that hearing is the first sense that is developed, and that the fetus already has a fully developed sense of hearing by the 6th month.

Conclusion of the study
Of the pregnant women questioned, 88% were positively affected by the music. Most of them described the effect with words such as “relaxing”, “calming” and the like. One found that by listening to the music her fear of the childbirth was replaced with confidence in a positive birth experience.  

One created a personal space with the music, so that instead of depression she found solutions for what she could do. 79% of the pregnant women could feel a reaction from the fetus, either often or occasionally or infrequently. Several could directly perceive that the fetus was calmed and that it was responsive to the music.  Two of those participating used the music during the childbirth, and they both had a positive experience with it, because the music was both relaxing and distracting.

Of the new parents questioned, 93% were positively affected by the music, and typical reactions were that the music was exceptionally relaxing and good against stress, that it was energizing, etc. No one was negatively affected.

The study shows that the music, besides having a clear effect on the fetus, had a significantly positive effect on infants and toddlers. 72% of the respondents found that the music had a positive effect on their children. Many experienced very significant and powerful reactions.

55% of the respondents noticed the positive reaction from the children immediately, while 17% replied that the reaction came after the child had heard the music several times.

The typical reactions were noticeable contentment, “a calm, listening child”, “the child is calmed”, “the child falls asleep more quickly”, etc. One replied that “the music is the ultimate medicine when my child is sick”. No one in this group noticed negative reactions to the music from their children. However there was one child who did not like the dolphin sounds.

The practitioners all noticed significant reactions not only from the children they treated, but also often from the parents. One noticed a reaction every time a child was in treatment, while the two others answered “often”. Words such as “peace”, “tranquillity”, “inner presence and calm”, that “the music produces calm and attentive children”, etc., were used to describe the children’s reactions.

As to the indirect effect on infant/toddler, which is the effect achieved when the parents are calmed and their state is imparted to the infant/toddlers, we cannot draw any certain conclusion from our study. However we refer to the section on stress, where 57% of the parents questioned believe that there is a connection between their stress and their children’s restlessness.  

Since 93% believed that the music had a positive effect on the parents themselves, and reduced their stress, we can draw a guarded conclusion that the music must also have an indirect, positive effect on the children/fetus.

About the CDs
The CD series Music for Mother & Child consists of three CDs:

1. Windchimes, indicated for pregnant women, the unborn child and infants
2. Tales of the Ocean, for the 0-1 year-olds and their parents
3. Lullabies, for 1-2 year-olds and their parents

The composers talk about the CDs:

“The music on the CDs Music for Mother & Child contains elements chosen specifically to be relaxing for fetuses and infants, and elements that are more generally relaxing for all age-groups. Thus the music can be used by both the unborn, infants/toddlers and adults.

On Windchimes there are purposely long, continuous passages. Through dialogue with a reflexologist who has specialized in work with infants, we learned that the continuity is an important element for calming young children. Too many breaks in the music can be very disturbing to young children.  

Therefore the CD consists of two long passages connected by light, melodious wind chimes. The music has a light and airy quality and is thought of as a soothing blanket of sound. Besides the continuous wind chimes, the instruments we have chosen are Native American drums, which according to the original Americans represent the heartbeat of Mother Earth, the human voice as a primordial instrument, and the acoustic guitar for its transparent tone. The music is composed both with an intuitive approach and a search for a balance in the harmonious structures from a more analytical angle.

Thus, among other things, Windchimes consciously consists of a melodious, five-tone structure, which is completely devoid of tension.

On Tales of the Ocean we use dolphin sounds and the sound of the waves as recurrent elements. Through the ages many people have been powerfully affected emotionally by listening to the fascinating sounds of the dolphins, and we felt that they would help give the music the right expression.  

We all come from the watery element, and we quickly found that the child who is now more conscious, reacted very positively to the naturally created, soothing rhythm of the sounds of the sea.

In addition, on this CD we use Tibetan singing bowls and bells, which have a unique tone and contain an element of primordial strength, which is soothing for both children and adults. Tales of the Ocean is thought overall as a journey of the consciousness from the surface down to the deeper layer (under the sea) ending with a homecoming symbolized in the composition The Sea is my Home.

The last CD, Lullabies, is, as the name says, a sequence of newly composed lullabies, each of which tells its own little story. Compared to the other two CDs, the melodic material is significantly advanced, so they harmonize with the child’s enhanced consciousness and ability to comprehend actual melodic sequences.  

At the same time we have sought to preserve the tranquil and secure atmosphere by purposely using repetition as an artistic effect. Some of the compositions on Lullabies have an almost hypnotic expression, something that naturally also influences the listening experience of the adults.”

About the composers:

Claus D Jensen is a qualified  guitarist amnd composer with a degree from The Music Conservatory of Jutland.  He has played professionally since 1984 and has taught at music school, college and evening school.  He is involved with several scientific researches about the effect of music and relaxation audioprograms on hospitals and self hypnosis-audioprograms for pregnant.

Henrik Birk Aaboe was educated at the Musicological Institute at the University of Århus, and has taught both at the university and in music schools.  In addition he functions as arranger and composer in various contexts.  He has his own company, Corona Music (www.coronamusic.dk), with a recording studio and music publishing house. He has released several music collections in his own name.

Quotes from the report:

“Because of a previous traumatic childbirth, I have some fear of childbirth.  The music was a centering and calming influence on me, and I had more confidence in a positive childbirth experience.”  (a mother-to-be)

“If there was restlessness, the fetus became more calm when I played the music.”
(a mother-to-be)

“With sickness, when the child was restless and unhappy, this music was the ultimate medicine.” (mother of infant)

“They are delightful CDs. Not only for the mother-to-be and toddlers. Also for adults.”  (reflexologist)

“My clients achieve a feeling of lightness so that they feel they are floating over the mat, and they experience a feeling of presence more quickly than with other music.  For the best effect in this process I have used the CD, Tales of the Ocean.” (reflexologist)

“Wonderful stimulation against stress, hip-hop, radio commercials and such.  Very relaxing!” (mother of infant)

“I relax more – drop my shoulders, etc. while nursing.  Beautiful to listen to – uplifting and relaxing.” (mother of infant)

“She often becomes calmer and stops crying. She falls asleep quickly when I play the music when it is time for her to sleep.”  (mother of infant)

“Our child seems more relaxed, and he appears to lie and listen because it sounds good.” (mother of infant)

“She listened quite intensely and calmed down, especially during nursing, if she was a little hysterical or over tired.” (mother of infant)

“If she cries, she stops quickly when we play the music.” (mother of infant)

“The child became calm, listening, searched a little within himself, where fantasies and dreams grow.” (mother of infant)

For more info:
www.musicformotherandchild.com
www.clausdjensen.com

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Unlimited music downloads are now made readily available on the internet from different online music stores and services. Some go on a pay-per-download basis, while others go on a subscription service, either on monthly or one-time basis. They reportedly carry millions of sound tracks and MP3 files from all the known music genres you can ever find. The question of where to download music is therefore answered by going to these music services which provide unlimited music downloads. But it is equally important to know which are the best deals in town when locating where to download music online. We take a look at what is downloading online music from these music download sites all about.

Major online music stores like HMV, Amazon and so on carry many labels and their selection is fantastic with loads of music pieces, movie soundtracks, songs, music videos and practically unlimited music downloads are available for you to download. Never worry about where to download music again. However, music lovers after getting the thrill of downloading lots of music files start to feel the pinch. This is where the latest new generation of music download sites would make them scream with excitement again.

You see, the new music download sites offer unlimited music downloads. And by that, it means that you not only can find any title or album you want but also download them without any quantity restriction. Be it 1000 songs or 10,000 songs that you intend to download, it does not matter. These music download sites would charge you only once for unlimited music downloads at an affordable rate that even teens have the ability to get their memberships. That is the whole intention of the music download sites, to reach the mass musical audience.

But there are almost a dozen of unlimited music downloads sites that solve your problem of where to download music quickly. So it can be quite a challenge to decide which to go for. Do not worry as here are some useful tips to help you along to decide where to download music from which music download sites for unlimited music downloads. These would find you the suitable music download site.

Be sure to first check out the music selection of these music download sites. There is really no point in using them even if they have millions of music pieces and songs, ie unlimited music downloads in their collection but none are what you want. Most should carry the general range of music that are more common like pop, rock and so on. But if you are looking for specific niche genres which are a little bit uncommon, you need to check if the music collection at these music download sites carries your desired label or brand of music.

Secondly, you need to confirm the file format of the music files you are downloading from the music download sites. This is easy as many have unlimited music downloads in MP3 format. This is the most commonly readable format used by most MP3 players or digital portable players. So as long as the music download site has it, you know this is where to download music so that you can enjoy unlimited music downloads on your player.

Another thing to take note of is some music download sites for unlimited music downloads require you to download special client application in order to download music online. If you are a frequent traveller, you may not like the idea that you need to install software on your computer in order to download music. This means that you can only do so from home. As such, you may want to go for those that do not require any client applications to do so. That said, the client application does not need a lot of computer resources and can be easily installed and removed. It is really your choice when getting the unlimited music downloads from the music download sites.

Anyone who wishes to learn more about where to download music at amazingly low one-off prices can visit my music blog and begin your journey of putting unlimited music downloads on your computer or MP3 player.

Read more on Portsmouth Herald

Music education, in some form, goes back as far as education itself. While sometimes struggling for legitimacy, it nonetheless has had its champions. More recently, as technology has flourished within education, technological applications designed specifically for the teaching of music have been developed. While much of this technology is designed primarily for the classroom there are programs designed for the student to utilize in the home, albeit limited to those students with a home computer and internet access.

The teaching of music in the American educational setting dates back 1838 when Lowell Mason introduced singing classes to Boston grammar schools. Instrumental music appeared in fits and starts over the next fifty years but was never included during the school day; rather, it was relegated to the ranks of extracurricular activities. Around the turn of the century, instrumental music began to see some acceptance into the classroom, though often was taught by those untrained in the area of music education. Moreover, little if any standardization of the instrumentation or music literature existed. (Rhodes, 2007)

Near the conclusion of World War I the quality of school music began to increase. This was due primarily to veterans who, after having been musically trained in the various service branches, began to fill music teaching positions in the schools. Band, however, was still regarded as an extracurricular activity. (Ibid)

In 1907, the Music Supervisors National Conference or MSNC, (now known as the Music Educators National Conference or MENC) was organized to support school music. In 1912 a proposal was made to include, as accredited subjects, a number of music activities including choruses and general music. Band was included – but at a much lower priority. Later, however, at the Cleveland MSNC conference in 1923, Edgar B. Gordon stated,

The high school band is no longer an incidental school enterprise prompted largely by the volunteer services of a high school teacher who happens to have had some band experience, but rather an undertaking which is assigned to a definite place in the school schedule with a daily class period under a trained instructor and with credit allowed for satisfactory work done. (Ibid)

In the same year, and likely due to the increase in both acceptance and importance, Carl Greenleaf (then head of C. G. Conn Ltd.) helped organize the first National Band Contest in Chicago. Later, in 1928, he directed the Conn company to contribute to the founding of the National Music Camp in Interlochen, Michigan and later supported publications designed to support band directors. While these endeavors may have appeared somewhat self-serving in light of his position with Conn, they nonetheless helped establish school band as a significant part of school curriculum. (Banks, 1997)

Despite a gradual, while still limited, acceptance of instrumental music within the school curriculum, budget cuts have often curtailed or even eliminated these programs. Further, with the recent increased emphasis upon “teaching to the test” due to the pressures of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and similar state requirements, support for the inclusion of music in schools has begun to wane. Michelle R. Davis, in “Education Week,” stated “The federal No Child Left Behind Act is prompting many schools to cut back on subjects such as social studies, music, and art to make more time for reading and mathematics…” (Davis, 2006) This is most unfortunate considering that the study of music, especially instrumental music, has proved to be beneficial for all students – even increasing their ability to reason and problem-solve.

Many theorists have contributed to the elevation of music as central to education, or at the very least, demonstrated that limiting the school environment to the “Three R’s” is short-sighted. Howard Gardner postulated his “Multiple Intelligences” theory with the understanding that children do not possess identical propensities for learning. Not only do they have differing capacities for learning but have differing capacities for learning in many areas. These areas, as he explained, are the varying intelligences of which he speaks. Originally describing seven intelligences (of which music is highlighted) he identified two specifically (linguistic and logical-mathematical) as “the ones that have typically been valued in school.” (Gardner, 1999, p41) Obviously, Gardner recognized that the educational system was not reaching all students – only those that could “do school” well. Gardner did not limit his study, of course, to the mere existence of multiple intelligences but demonstrated that a given person can be strong in more than one, enabling those intelligences to interact one with the other. He explained that, “there are other ways in which different intelligences can affect each other…one intelligence can mediate and constrain the others; one intelligence can compensate for another; and one intelligence can catalyze another.” (Gardner 2, 2006, p219) He further extolled the advantages of a musical intelligence by explaining that “…a strong musical intelligence may lead a person engaged in a linguistic task to be more sensitive to the rhythmic properties of language as well as its meaning.” (Ibid, p223)

While many may assume that music and the study thereof is associated primarily to that which is heard, it is also related quite closely to mathematics. Dahlhaus, reflecting Rameau stated that “music had its origins in the Pythagorean proportions; (i.e., music is a mathematics).” (Gargarian, 1996, p137, 138) Regardless of whether or not one agrees with the theory that music is mathematical in toto, there should be little dispute as to the relativity of music notation to mathematics. Indeed, introducing the coordinate, or Cartesian, plane appears to aid the new music student in understanding the horizontal (x), and vertical (y) axes of music notation. Simply stated, the horizontal (x) axis on the music staff relates to duration while the vertical (y) axis relates to pitch. This, of course is a reflection upon Gardner’s aforementioned theory of intelligence interaction.

There is further evidence that instrumental music study is advantageous for the student. In 1995, Gottfried Schlaug, et al, published a study, “Increased Corpus Callosum Size in Musicians” wherein they described an increase in neural fibers across the Corpus Callosum (CC), contributing to its enlargement. They further were able to determine that this increase in fibers/CC size was attributable to instrumental music study. (Schlaug, et al, 1995) Obviously, the supposition can easily be made that, if there is greater cross-talk between the two hemispheres of the brain (specifically, the left – thought to be the analytical, and the right – thought to be the creative) the result would be a person with a greater, more creative, problem-solving ability.

Reflecting upon Gardner’s theories, as well as those of Schlaug, et al, it should surprise no one that others have confirmed links between music and other skills. Bahr and Christiansen in their article “Inter-Domain Transfer Between Mathematical Skill and Musicianship” published findings demonstrating that students who had studied music demonstrated superior performance on mathematical tasks provided there was some structural overlap with music. (Bahr, Christiansen, 2000) This “structural overlap” could be nearly anything, including the relationship of dividing measures or notes into fractions, relating pitch to frequency, or, as aforementioned, establishing the link between the coordinate (Cartesian) plane and the music staff.

With this enhanced problem-solving ability; this increased awareness of mathematical concepts, it would not be a grand leap to assume that music students might perform well with classroom technology. Indeed, music students should be expected to do at least as well as other students with regard to technology. If that is true, then the next step would be to assume that they would do especially well with technology geared especially to them.

Somewhat recently, technologists, recognizing a dearth of technologically-based music applications began to develop computer programs for music education. Music theory websites began to appear, many having been produced by, and linked to, symphonic organizations. Others have been produced by teachers and graduate students either as part of coursework or perhaps for their own use (and anyone wishing to utilize the application). A quick search of the internet reveals that there are quite a number of available technological tools produced and published for the music student. There are interactive music games, in-class keyboard music theory applications, countless online pitch and rhythm websites, and, perhaps most powerful, applications known as “computer assisted instruction” (CAI)” specifically for the music classroom and student. In January 2005, Steven Estrella published the findings of a study demonstrating how music teachers in the U.S. used music technology. Among his findings, he discovered that approximately twenty percent of the survey participants used some form of CAI as part of their instruction. The survey further discovered that the predominant software application was “SmartMusic.” (Estrella, 2005)

SmartMusic is a teacher/student interactive application allowing students to practice, at home, with a synthesized band or orchestral accompaniment. The program can also, with an included microphone, record the student’s efforts and grade them using rhythm and pitch data. The student can immediately see their results and can retry if they wish. The recording and the accompanying grade are then emailed to the student’s teacher/director and automatically entered into the teacher’s database grade book. The program includes accompaniments for around thirty-thousand compositions including band and orchestra method book pieces. (Nagel, 2007) While early reviews of the program were mixed, the company that produces SmartMusic, “MakeMusic,” was apparently responsive to teacher/consumer complaints and suggestions. The program requires that the home version be installed on the students own computer and, in earlier versions, installation, setup, and microphone placement were problematic. In the latest version, SmartMusic 11, many of these issues were addressed either by simplifying the process or with enhanced user guides. (Whaley, 2008)

For the classroom, SmartMusic holds a wealth of applications. The most basic functions of the program include a displayed tuner and metronome. (A music classroom with an interactive whiteboard can make excellent use of SmartMusic’s utilities.) The teacher can then play a pre-recorded version of a piece to be studied and, while the students are playing along, can instantly record them independent of the pre-recording for later playback. The program also includes fingering charts for all instruments so a quick check for the students perhaps needing additional instruction is easily accomplished. Keys and tempi can be changed easily, if necessary, and if a single performer wishes to play with a pre-recorded accompaniment, that accompaniment, “listening” to the performer via a microphone, can follow the performer’s changes in tempo – not unlike what the conductor of a symphony orchestra would do in a live performance.

As important and powerful as SmartMusic is in the classroom, its most powerful application – and the primary purpose for which it was intended – is that of a home practice and assessment tool. There are literally thousands of accompaniments and scales included in the software as well as thousands of music titles. Once the students have subscribed, downloaded (or installed from a CD), and set up the home version of the program, the teacher can design playing assignments which the student then accesses at home on their own computer.

Playing through a microphone to the program’s accompaniment gives an instant visual and aural response; while the recording of the student’s performance is played, their correct notes are displayed in green while mistakes are displayed in red. The student can decide upon and set their own tempo, then practice with the computer-generated accompaniment as many times as they wish prior to recording for a grade. In short, the student is in control while at home. Students having access to broadband internet and a reasonably up-to-date computer can fully realize the potential of the program – as well as their own. (Rudolph, 2006)

But what of those students not fortunate enough to have a computer at home – let alone internet access?

Obviously, the power of SmartMusic would be largely lost on those students without a home computer or internet access. The cost of the home version is small, and some districts have even provided the subscription free of charge for their students. (Nagel, 2007) However, can districts provide a workable computer and internet access or all of its students?

David Thomas stated that schools have made great progress in the introduction of computer and internet access. However, that access, for disadvantaged students, remains at school. (Thomas, 2003) Thomas further quoted then U. S. Secretary of Education, Rod Paige:

We need to address the limited access to technology that many students have outside of school. There is much more we can do. Closing the digital divide will also help close the achievement gap that exists within our schools. (Thomas, 2003)

A 2007 study in New York revealed that between seventy and eighty percent of students have computers at home. (Traber, 2007) One might suggest that the real numbers cross-country are actually much lower.

There are many music students dependant upon school-provided instruments, method books, and even instrument supplies such as reeds and valve oil (usually provided out the teacher’s own pocket). These students are already behind their more affluent counterparts and cannot afford private lessons, let alone a workable computer and internet access. These are the students who could benefit most from a program such SmartMusic. However, as useful and powerful as SmartMusic is, it cannot by itself bridge this “digital divide” that still exists.

Educational technology holds great promise for the student musician but until a method for equitable access is discovered, disproportionate achievement will persist.

References

Bahr, N. & Christensen C.A. (2000). Inter-Domain Transfer Between Mathematical Skill and Musicianship. In Journal of Structural Learning & Intelligent Systems (Vol. 14(3), 2000, pp. 187 – 197). US: Gordon & Breach Science Publishers

Banks, Margaret Downie (1997). A Brief History of the Conn Company (1874-present). The National Music Museum.

Davis, Michelle R. (2006, April). Study: NCLB Leads to Cuts for Some Subjects. Education Week.

Estrella, Steven (2005). Survey of Music Educators and Music Technology. Shearspire.

Gardner, Howard (1999). Intelligence Reframed, Multiple Intelligences for the Twenty First Century. Basic Books/Perseus Books Group: New York

Gardner, Howard (2006). Multiple Intelligences – New Horizons. Basic Books/Perseus Books Group: New York

Gargarian, Gregory (1996). The Art of Design. In Kafai, Y., & Resnick, M. (Eds.). Constructionism in practice: designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Nagel, Dave (2007, August). Tucson USD Gives SmartMusic Subscriptions to Students, THE Journal.

Rhodes, Stephen L. (2007). A History of the Wind Band – The American School Band Movement. Lipscomb University.

Rudolph, Tom (2006, February). The Wide World of SmartMusic. Music Education Technology.

Schlaug, Gottfried; Lutz, Jäncke; Huang, Yanxiong; Staiger, Jochen F., Steinmetz, Helmuth, (1995). Increased Corpus Callosum Size in Musicians. Neuropsychologia, Vol. 33, No. 8, pp. 1047-1055.

Thomas, David (2003). Internet Access Soars in Schools, But “Digital Divide” Still Exists at Home for Minority and Poor Students. U. S. Department of Education.

Traber, Chris (2007, September). Poor Students Struggle In Class. YorkRegion.com News.

Whaley, Roger (2008, September 10). SmartMusic 11! – MakeMusic has released SmartMusic 11!. The Band Ed Tool Shed (Weblog).